However, glucagon also: Increases energy expenditure: Glucagon promotes thermogenesis and fat oxidation Targets the liver directly: The liver has no GLP-1 or GIP receptors but is rich in glucagon receptors Reduces liver fat: Glucagon receptor activation may ease oxidative stress in liver mitochondria Provides anti-fibrotic benefits: Improved fat oxidation can improve mitochondrial function When combined with GLP-1 and GIP agonism, the glucagon components blood sugar effects appear to be counterbalanced while its metabolic benefits are retained

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Although the GIP and GIP receptor system is known to promote energy assimilation and contribute to obesity [26], the fact that a dual GIP/GLP-1R agonist exhibited stronger anti-obesity effects than GLP-1RAs alone was unexpected
Oleoylethanolamide (OEA), an ethanolamide fatty acid synthesized in the body, can regulate glucose homeostasis and weight loss by stimulating GLP-1 secretion from intestinal L-cells and insulin secretion from -cells in a GPR119-dependent manner and by affecting the abundance of the bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila [146, 147]